Many of us have wondered, at one time or another, how our experiences growing up shaped the people we have become. Erik Erikson, who proposed the theory of psychosocial development (psychosocial development theory), studied psychoanalysis (psychoanalysis) in his younger years. After becoming a therapist, Erikson went on to research human psychological development, and extended Freud's psychosexual theory of development to put forward what is often called the "eight stages of life" — the theory of stages of psychosocial development.
What is the psychosocial theory of development / the eight stages of life?
The psychosocial theory of development builds, to a degree, on the psychosexual theory of development. Erikson's theory emphasises three elements: physiological, psychological and social development. Unlike Freud, who stressed sexuality, Erikson placed more weight on the influence of society on the individual. The psychosocial theory of development does not only discuss the influence of childhood on psychological development; it also sets out how a person's experiences in adulthood or later life go on to shape their personality. At each of the theory's eight stages, a psychosocial crisis emerges. These crises are not triggered solely by a person's physiological and psychological development — social factors matter just as much. In trying to understand the eight stages of life, most people overlook how important society is to the formation of personality. If a person can successfully confront and resolve these crises, they are able to build the psychological strength (virtue) that corresponds to that stage. Before we discuss the theory any further, let us first look at the crisis and the virtue of each stage!
| Stage | Psychosocial crisis | Virtue |
| Infancy (0–1 year) | Trust vs. mistrust | Hope |
| Early childhood (2–3 years) | Autonomy vs. shame and doubt | Will |
| Preschool (4–5 years) | Initiative vs. guilt | Purpose |
| School age (6–12 years) | Industry vs. inferiority | Competence |
| Adolescence (13–18 years) | Identity vs. role confusion | Fidelity |
| Young adulthood (19–25 years) | Intimacy vs. isolation | Love |
| Middle adulthood (26–65 years) | Generativity vs. stagnation | Care |
| Late adulthood (65 years and over) | Integrity vs. despair | Wisdom |
When we try to understand the psychosocial theory of development, we need to bear in mind that to genuinely resolve a crisis, a person must work through both the positive and the negative psychological states that the crisis brings at each stage. Take adolescence as an example: if an adolescent simply accepts the identity society hands them, never experiencing any questioning or role confusion along the way, then in theory they have not resolved the crisis of adolescence. The psychologist James Marcia further extended the discussion of identity within the psychosocial theory of development, pointing out that building an identity requires going through two processes: crisis and commitment. Adolescents need to actively explore different possibilities within a crisis, and then make a commitment to their choices around ideology or identity. Crisis and commitment — two essential elements, neither of which can be missing.
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Using the psychosocial theory of development to understand people
The psychosocial theory of development is a framework for understanding ourselves and others. When we talk with someone and have the chance to learn about the background they grew up in, the psychosocial theory of development can give us a fresh angle from which to interpret our own personality or that of others. Like most theories in personality psychology, the eight stages of life offer a workable interpretation for many human psychological traits. That said, a theory is only a tool; how to go a step further and make use of the results or explanations the theory yields is another matter of learning altogether.
Beyond passively understanding a person's past and present psychological traits, we can also actively learn about the psychosocial crisis that we ourselves — or the people we care about, such as our children — are currently going through. The psychosocial theory of development lets us grasp the key to each stage of growth, so that we can actively steer our lives towards healthy development.
As for ourselves: as adolescents, we can open up a little, try to take on different identities, examine them critically and find the way of living that suits us best. Young people should seize the chance and their youth to actively search for life's possibilities — whether in religious belief, further study and work, or moral values, young people should be willing to dive into the mess of it all, and so live through the kinds of formative moments that are indispensable to healthy growth. As adults, we may underestimate the importance of building intimate relationships with others. By middle adulthood, we may start to think about whether, in our careers, we can find meaning in our work and whether we are truly a productive person. The next step after learning about the eight stages of life is to actively examine our own life experiences, and — while we still have the ability and the opportunity — to take the reins of our own lives and actively let ourselves grow in the most fulfilling way.
As for others: we often hold many identities at once — perhaps a child, perhaps a parent, perhaps a partner. Whatever your identity, you surely hope to care for and love the people around you. Now that you understand the psychosocial theory of development, I invite you to do your part for the people you care about. As a child, you can explore your parents' generativity or sense of life's meaning together with them, so that they can live a fulfilling second half of life; as a parent, you can face psychosocial crises together with your child, giving them a healthy childhood; as a partner, you can support each other along the road of life, so that together you can enjoy a rich and abundant life.
Growth never stops over the course of a lifetime. The most valuable thing about the psychosocial theory of development is that it does not halt at childhood growth. Even into late adulthood, whether we choose to look back on our lives with contentment or to feel pessimism and despair is itself a part of the psychosocial theory of development. To see the meaning and value of life through the experience of growth — this is the eight stages of life.
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