Criminology is a fairly niche subject in Hong Kong: at university level, essentially only the University of Hong Kong and the City University of Hong Kong offer related programmes. Criminology is a branch of sociology — it studies crime from a social perspective, but it is also closely linked to disciplines such as psychology, law and anthropology. Criminology is not criminal psychology (Criminal Psychology) or forensic science (Forensic Science); rather, it mainly examines crime waves, the causes and effects of crime, how to control crime, and so on. So, what is it that actually drives people to commit crime?
Rational choice vs edgework?
When it comes to the causes of crime, rational choice theory (Becker, 1968) can account for the occurrence of some offences, particularly theft. In rational choice theory, crime is seen as a rational choice on the part of the offender — a cost-benefit calculation. An offender weighs the benefits the offence would bring against the risks behind the act, the alternatives available, and so on. So, when a person judges that an offence will yield an immediate gain and, in the long run, carries the least risk, a motive to commit crime arises. Beyond this, rational choice theory also holds that crime depends on "the right time, the right place and the right people". So when a person who already has a motive to offend encounters a suitable target in a quiet, unsupervised location — perhaps an elder who looks frail and defenceless — there is a high chance the offence will take place. From this we can see that rational choice theory proposes that offenders are in fact no different from ordinary people; they do not possess a distinctive personality, nor have they been socialised into some criminal belief system or a culture that demands crime (Cornish & Clarke, 1986; Kubrin et al., 2009). Unlike rational choice, some cultural criminologists emphasise the feelings that crime brings to a person — they are drawn to crime by a thrill formed from a blend of happiness (pleasure) and fear (Katz, 1988). In edgework (Lyng, 1990), people have an innate disposition towards voluntary risk taking, and through that risk taking they arrive at self-realisation, achieving self-determination and authenticity. And in the act of offending, the offender experiences emotions of high intensity, giving rise to a sense of hyper-reality — an experience that feels more real than everyday life, in which they feel themselves merging into one with their surroundings or with objects. The risk that comes with breaking the law is treated as a challenge, letting the offender enjoy this feeling of "challenging the law".
Broken windows theory
Beyond this, broken windows theory (Wilson & Kelling, 1982) also offers an account of why crime occurs. Broken windows theory emphasises the environment of crime, pointing out that if one window is broken, nearby windows will soon be broken too, and even more varied offences will appear — burglary, robbery and the like. From this we can see that if the order of an environment has already been damaged and is not properly addressed, it readily invites more and more serious offences, leaving the social order of that environment in an even worse state. One famous application of this theory was in New York City in the early 1990s. At the time New York's crime rate was sky-high, its environment was run-down, and offences were rampant. Recognising this, the then mayor of New York, Rudy Giuliani, drew on broken windows theory, starting with minor offences such as fare evasion on the subway and publicly cracking down on fare-dodgers. Subsequently, violent incidents such as robbery within the New York subway fell by 76%, the city's serious crime rate also dropped by a third, and even the murder rate fell accordingly. From this we can see that a degraded environment is likewise a breeding ground for crime. Social disorder leads citizens to believe their community has become unsafe, and so out of fear they choose to withdraw from the community. As a result, social control is weakened at the same time, allowing more offences to occur and forming a vicious cycle. Social disorder leads to crime, and crime in turn leads to further crime and social disorder (McKee, 2018).
Strain theories
Strain theories propose that when a person encounters certain forms of strain and stressors, they may choose to deal with it through crime. These strains and stressors include the failure to achieve one's goals (for example a goal of money or status), the loss of positive stimuli (for example the death of a friend, or the loss of a treasured possession), or the presentation of negative stimuli (for example verbal and physical abuse). When a person feels grief or anger as a result of these experiences, they may turn to crime as a route for venting or revenge, in order to escape or relieve these strains and stressors. For example, a person who has long suffered domestic abuse might choose to kill the abuser and take their money, both to vent their anger and to take revenge. Beyond this, strain may promote the social learning of crime. Strain may lead a person to draw closer to others who reinforce criminal behaviour, model crime and teach beliefs favourable to crime. They may also associate with other offenders in order to cope with their strain (Cohen, 1955; Cloward & Ohlin, 1960). For example, an adolescent who has been bullied or neglected might choose to join a gang in search of acceptance and support. Beyond this, a person exposed to certain crime-conducive sources of strain may develop criminal motives and beliefs. For example, a person who is frequently abused may come to believe that violence is a reasonable response, or at least an excusable one. They thereby establish criminal beliefs and learn and reinforce criminal behaviour.
Looking at crime through psychology
So, how does psychology understand the motives and behaviour behind crime? In the field of psychology there is a famous behaviourism experiment, the Bobo Doll Experiment, which described how observational learning promotes aggressive, violent behaviour (Bandura, 1961). The experiment found that children who observed an adult's aggressive behaviour were more inclined to imitate the violent behaviour they had observed in the adult. The children learned violent behaviour through the observation process; by the time they reached the third experiment room, the feelings of frustration they had experienced in the second room found relief through imitating the violent behaviour, thereby producing an effective link. Subsequently, when they encountered similar situations again, they would go on to carry out the aggressive behaviour they had learned from the adults, thereby establishing a pattern of violent conduct. From this we can see that violent and aggressive offences may also be built upon observational learning. When a person observes aggressive behaviour in their surroundings, they rationalise that behaviour and then learn and practise it. This also accounts for the causes of some violent crime.
All of the above is some introductory theoretical knowledge from criminology. Besides examining some of the more general questions (such as the definition of crime), criminology also delves into the study of different offences, such as organised crime, fraud, corruption and so on. If you are interested in the theories behind crime and in how criminal behaviour is controlled, why not seek out more information related to criminology!
References
Bandura, Albert. (1965). Influence of models’ reinforcement contingencies on the acquisition of imitative responses. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1(6), 589-595.
Criminology Theories – Criminal Justice – IResearchNet. Criminal Justice. (n.d.). http://criminal-justice.iresearchnet.com/criminology/theories/#google_vignette.
Cromwell, P., & Olson, J. N. (2004). The reasoning offender: Motives and decision-making strategies. Breaking and entering: Burglars on burglary. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Halsey, M. (2008). Narrating the chase: Edgework and young peoples’ experiences of crime. The critical criminology companion, 105-117.
Katz, J. (1988). Seductions of crime: Moral and sensual attractions in doing evil.
McKee, A. J. (2018, December 14). Broken windows theory. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/broken-windows-theory
Strain Theories. obo. (n.d.). https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195396607/obo-9780195396607-0005.xml.
Thompson, A. K. (2017, February 9). Cultural Criminology – Crime as ‘Edgework’. ReviseSociology. https://revisesociology.com/2016/09/20/cultural-criminology-crime-as-edgework/.
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